Computer Info

Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) is one of the software automation processes that directly convert the product drawing or the object into the code design that enables the machine to manufacture the product. It is used in various machines like lathes and milling machines for the product manufacturing purposes. It allows the computer work instructions to communicate directly to the manufacturing machines.

The mechanism of CAM developed from the Computer Numerical Machines (CNC) in the early 1950s. These systems were directed by a set of coded instructions in a punched paper tape. The proposal to develop the first numerically controlled machine was commissioned to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) from the US Air Force in the year 1949. The entire proposed idea of developing this machine was demonstrated in the year 1952.

The motivation factor in developing these kinds of numerically automated machines involves the expensive costs in manufacturing the complex curved geometries in 2D or 3D constraints mechanically. The development of these machines considers the factors like easier programming in CAM and easy storage of programs. A program can be changed easily and avoid manual errors. Numerically controlled machines are safer to operate, and the complex geometry comes at a reasonable price.

James T. Parsons proposed the concept of the numerical control operations during the year of 1948. In 1950, the MIT servo mechanism lab developed the Numerical Control (NC) milling project. The remaining program parts were released in the later period of 1952 along with the first successful demo version. After 1955, major companies in the industry developed their own machine designs.

IBMs Automatic Tool Changer in the year 1955, G & Ls first production of the skin-miller in the year 1957, and the machining center developed by K & T have all been considered to be major developments to promote the technology with more benefits. CAD drafting and the sculptured surfaces were developed in the year 1965; 7,700 NCs were also installed during the same year.

During the year 1967, the concept of developing the CNC machine was proposed. The existence and the major development of the CAD/CAM machines evolved during the year 1972. 3D CAM/CAD systems were introduced in 1976. Expert CAM/CAD systems were developed in the year 1989. The major development of the CAM systems provides you with easier manufacturing of objects with high efficiency.

Also, unlike viruses that most commonly infect an individual computer, the worms usually attack a computer network. A computer network functions by using a collection of servers and routers. This is what the internet is comprised of. A server is like a PC but has more speed and storage and a router is a server with specialized functions, it directs traffic through the network.
PC Security – Worm Viruses, Deadliest of All

A virus attacks the unit used to run programs on the computer called the central processing unit or CPU for short. It does this by running programs and being constantly busy, so that none of the functions you select can be opened. Similarly, this is how a worm functions on a network. The routers rely on memory and processing time (similar to the CPU functions). These are attacked and as a result the network drastically slows down.

Worms carry payloads which are comprised of other types of malware, backdoor installations or spyware. Spyware is a monitoring program that can keep an eye on activities on your computer and backdoor programs set up hidden access points used by hackers to steal your information or send spam.

My Doom sent out at the beginning of 2004, was the fastest spreading worm to date. The worm came in the form of an email with the message “andy; I’m just doing my job, nothing personal, sorry.”

Although the culprit was never found, its intended victim is thought to have been a software company called Santa Cruz Operation or SCO for short.

When a person opened this email, the worm was programmed to overwhelm SCO’s website with traffic. The worm spread through the internet and caused a massive slow down.

For the individual computer, the worm’s payload is more serious because it allows ports to be opened on the computer where hackers have access to steal or delete information. In addition, a payload may come with a program to attack your antivirus software and disable it.

De worming

Using firewalls will help protect your computer. Firewalls reduce traffic and hide your computer. In this state, you are less likely to be attacked by worms spread over the network.

Be careful not to open suspicious emails and if you don’t know the person or get and unexpected email don’t open it. If you find your computer is slow and reboots by itself or the internet is sluggish, you may have been infected. Try running antivirus software to check it out. If that doesn’t work, try to manually removing the virus. Information as to how this is done can be found on the internet.

Unfortunately, there are a ton of reasons that you might experience bttray exe error and tracking down the exact issue can take some investigation. During Windows system startup or shutdown process, you may receive one of the following bttray exe error messages:

l -Windows cannot find C:WindowsBttray.exe make sure you typed the name correctly and try again.-

l -Application failed to initialize properly or specified module could not be found.-

l -bttray.exe has generated errors and will be closed by Windows.-

l -bttray.exe failed to initialize.-

l -bttray.exe is missing.-

l -explorer.exe class not registered.-

l -Windows host process (Bttray) has stopped working.-

If the bttray exe error messages drive you mad and you still cannot find out an efficient way to fix it, you should pay some time to learn more about it. Bttray exe error is correlated to bttray.exe file. Bttray.exe is a crucial component in Windows operating system for it is designed to command Dynamic Link Libraries to perform their certain tasks to keep Windows operating system running stably and smoothly. If your computer is encountering bttray exe error, you should have to enable an ultra professional bttray exe error fixer on your computer.

Why do you need to fix bttray exe error as soon as possible? This is because bttray exe error has the capability to bombard you with a collection of complicated problems below:
System shutdown problems
Blue Screen of Death errors
Driver Update Failure
Computer Boot Failure
Irregular Memory Usage
Windows Installer Errors
ActiveX Errors
ActiveX Control problems How to fix bttray exe error efficiently? The most typical method to fix bttray exe error is to stop the bttray.exe process from Windows Task Manager and then replace the incorrect version with a new one. But this activity requires you to have rich computer experience and .exe error removal knowledge. If you are a computer newbie, you can try to enable third- party software on your computer to help you fix bttray exe error. The ultra powerful repair tool is created by a group of highly praised computer professionals to offer you useful solutions to completely get rid of various types of computer problems. It provides computer users’ with comprehensive toolkits to fix .exe errors, .dll errors, runtime errors, computer no sound errors and access denied errors, to make sure your PC is running stably.

As the trend for high-specification mobile phones and computers continues at a rapid pace so too does the potential for electronic media misuse and abuse. This kind of fraudulent activity is becoming more commonly seen in legal cases, particularly with employment tribunals. Legal firms are beginning to employ the services of computer forensics experts more widely in documenting electronic evidence and providing litigation support, as this can be crucial in the outcome of cases.

Computer forensics can be used to track and provide evidence in cases of intellectual property theft, money laundering, hacking, moonlighting and the accessing of illegal or inappropriate websites. Digital forensics can also help to secure concrete evidence of illegal activity not usually associated with electronic devices including blackmail, drug dealings and abusive behaviour.

Regardless of whether digital forensics is being used in a criminal case or a civil matter (even as part of an E-discovery exercise), maintaining chain of custody is vital. This is the fully documented tracking of evidence for the period of time that the forensics team has possession of an electronic device. It ensures that each member of the team can be held accountable for any action that they take with the media.

The purpose of this chain is to log the movements of the data, how it has been stored and subsequently analysed. It is essential that this documentation presents an accurate description of any copying, transportation and storage that has occurred, to prevent any potential legal challenge.

It is worth pointing out the differences between e-discovery and computer forensics. E-discovery is the method of processing and manipulating electronically stored information to be used in legal cases. This can take the form of emails, word processed documents, images and any other type of file, which can be filtered, viewed, analysed and categorised effectively via this system. E-discovery using a forensically acquired data set is crucial in maintaining the integrity of any information present, while potentially recovering any deleted material that may be appropriate for the legal proceedings.

Computer forensics is a highly complex industry that requires the latest in product knowledge and technical expertise. Specialists will have years of experience in the on-site capturing of data from computers, servers and other forms of electronic media. This data is then analysed by their forensic analysis specialists, and used to track how a particular device has been used. All areas of the chain of custody documentation will be completed to the highest standard to ensure peace of mind for the client.

African-Americans in the United States Du Bois in 1946, photo by Carl Van Vechten Colorism in the United States is a practice that began in times of slavery due to white slave owner’s assertion that any person black (African) or associated with blackness, was inferior or lowly. Common practices of the time were to allow the slaves with the lighter complexion (more commonly the offspring of the slave masters and their slaves) to engage in less strenuous usually domesticated duties, while the darker, more African looking slaves participated in hard labor, which was more than likely outdoors. The “brown paper bag test” was a ritual once practiced by certain African-American and Creole fraternities and sororities who discriminated against people who were “too dark.” That is, these groups would not let anyone into the sorority or fraternity whose skin tone was darker than a paper lunch bag, in order to maintain a perception of standards. Spike Lee’s film School Daze satirized this practice at historically black colleges and universities. The rown paper bag test form of colorism is also believed to have been used in the application process to the prestigious Historically Black College Howard University. The University once required students to submit a photograph of themselves, most likely to ensure that the majority of the Universities students were of lighter complexion. Along with the “Paper Bag Test,” guidelines for acceptance among the lighter ranks included the “comb test”, which tested the coarseness of one’s hair, and the “flashlight test,” which tested a person’s profile, to make sure their features measured up, or were close enough to those of the Caucasian race. Colorism is prevalent in the job application process as well, research shows that a light skinned African American male with a bachelors degree and mediocre experience is more likely to be hired for a typical job than a dark skinned man with a Masters in Business Administration and past experience in the field. While stated less explicitly, colorism has been portrayed in episodes of the NBC drama Homicide: Life on the Street. Lighter-skinned African American superior officers Deputy Commissioner of Operations James C. Harris and Colonel George Barnfather appear to discriminate against main character Baltimore Police Lieutenant Al Giardello, a darker-skinned African American. Additionally, African American women have discriminated against Giardello on the grounds that his appearance is “too black”. Along with the above example, a major issue in American society has been the fact the majority of media outlets (television, movies, advertising, etc.) choose to portray lighter skin people, because on average, that is the national preference. The (light to dark) hierarchy within the African American race is one that has existed since the time of slavery, but its problems and consequences are still very evident. Darker skinned blacks are more likely to have negative relationships with the police, less likely to have higher education or income levels, and less likely to hold public office. Darker skinned people are also considered less intelligent, less desirable (in women mostly), and are overall seen as a lesser people. Studies have shown that when measuring education and family income, there is a positive sloping curve as the skin of families gets lighter. This does not prove that darker skinned people are discriminated against, but it provides insight as to why these statistics are recurring. Lighter skinned people tend to have higher social standing, more positive networks, and more opportunities to succeed than those of a darker persuasion. Scientists believe this advantage is due to not only to ancestors benefits, but also skin color, which coincides with the belief of colorism affecting peoples lives from past to present. In criminal sentencing, medium to dark-skinned African Americans are likely to receive sentences 2.6 longer than those of whites or light-skinned African Americans, and when a white victim is involved, those with more “black” features are likely to receive a much more severe punishment, reinforcing the idea that those of lighter complexion are of more “value.” Colorism also adversely affects the relationships between African American men and women. Darker skinned African Americans are less likely to get married, and those that do are more likely to marry beneath their own socioeconomic status, perpetuating the challenges that darker skinned blacks face. Also, as education levels rise, the preferences in attraction also change, with most college students believing that their lighter skinned racial counterparts are more attractive than darker skinned people. The preferences of children and adolescents were not that different, meaning education level is important. This problem seems to be more evident when discussing the lives of African American women, seeing as they have more to overcome with the more pronounced differences in the body type, facial features, and hair. The constant exposure to European traits in American media, such as Advertising, movies, television, or even children’s dolls, provides an explanation as to why this comparison to Caucasian-like traits is perpetuated. Those of lighter complexion are also known to have higher education and socioeconomic status, meaning their social skills are more “refined,” which can be seen as more attractive to other educated people. The idea that darker African American women do not stand up to their lighter counterparts may cause them to lose self confidence or esteem, which could in turn decrease their self worth, making them less likely to want to overcome the boundaries before them. Since the majority of a man’s self worth is not related to their level of physical attractiveness, men are not as adversely affected as women. The theory of the “sacred white womanhood” also affects perceptions of attractiveness in that women whose complexion is closer to the pristine “fair” skinned white woman are considered more desirable and at times more attractive. This goes against the typical historical view of dark skinned women, who were expected to be comparable to men in their ability to work, constantly looked at as dirty or as property, and in a sense emasculate their femininity. The backlash from these altering views is that African American women are forced to imitate the actions and lifestyles of white women, by doing such things as bleaching their skin or straightening their hair, in order to gain affection of their male complements. Skin Color Paradox The Skin Color Paradox is an idea that deals with the issue of “being black,” meaning how African Americans identify themselves, as well as others with the same experiences or lifestyles. A major issue in this paradox deals with the inconsistencies between a persons socio-economical and cultural preferences and their political preferences. Going along with the colorism issue, the paradox exists due to the fact that lighter skinned and darker skinned African Americans seem to have different experiences (socioeconomically and culturally), yet in the past, and theoretically in the future, will continue to have political preferences that benefit the African American race as a whole. Political scientists would suggest that skin color is a characteristic perhaps as equally important as religion, income, and education, which explains why the paradox is so surprising, but studies show that skin color (or shade) has no real implications on actual political preferences. Another issue with the paradox is the issue of affirmative action. Studies show that most of the people that receive affirmative action come from families that are better educated and more well off, and historically this means that the lighter-skinned portion of the black race is receiving the majority of the aid, making it appear as if the race as a whole is being benefited. Americo Liberians In Liberia, descendants of African-American settlers (renamed Americo-Liberians) in part defined social class and standing by raising people with lighter skin above those with dark skin. The first Americo-Liberian presidents such as Joseph Jenkins Roberts, James Spriggs-Payne, and Alfred Francis Russell had considerable proportions of European ancestry. Most may have been only one-quarter or one-eighth African American. Other aspects of their rising to power, however, likely related to their chances for having obtained education and work that provided good livings. Edward Roye was the first representative of dark-skinned African-American settlers in Liberia.(http://www.reference.com/search?q=Colorism). The light-skinned party was the Republican Party (Liberia) and the dark-skinned party was the True Whig Party. In addition to rivalries among descendants of African Americans, the Americans held themselves above the native Africans in Liberia. Thus, descendants of Americans held and kept power out of proportion to their representation in the population of the entire country, so there was a larger issue than color at work. The “Blue Vein Society” This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2007) Following the Emancipation, mulatto societies such as “The Blue Vein Society” came into prominence. Its members were often well-connected free-born or freed individuals of mixed African, European, and occasionally of Native American blood. To be eligible for membership, one’s skin color had to be pale enough that the “blue veins” on the underside of the arm were visible. Such restrictive organizations allowed its members and their offspring to meet, co-mingle and marry, thereby preserving what small privilege the mulatto elite had enjoyed before all slaves were set free. Uneducated, or economically disadvantaged mixed-race individuals, even those whose skin color was technically light enough to qualify them for admission, were rarely welcomed, demonstrating that there were more than color issues under consideration. The original “Blue Veins” were said to have been organized in New England. Their primary objective was to establish and maintain “correct” social standards among people who had achieved some social, educational and economic standing.[citation needed] Colorism outside the United States This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2007) Colorism also occurs in other western cultures where fair people are considered to be more superior, affluent, and powerful then those of a darker skin tone. In some Latin American countries such as Brazil, “race” classification is more a matter of skin tone and social status than actual ancestry. Colorism can be identified as a direct consequence of the social stratification of colonial societies, especially the ones affected by slavery. The phenomenon exists in the Americas from United States to Caribbean countries to South America. In the French West Indies, new born children can be deemed as “sauv” (saved) when their skin tone is light enough to represent a chance at better social status. The same conceptions that discriminate against dark skin are often applied to other physical features that are directly linked to African heritage: hair, face features, etc. Colorism in Brazil Brazil has the largest population of African descendants (living outside of Africa) in the world. This large number was a result of the African Slave trade. In Brazil, skin color plays a large role in differences among the races. Social status. Individuals with lighter skin and who are racially mixed generally have higher rates of social mobility. Like in the United States, there are a disproportionate number of white elites than those of African descent. There are large health, education and income disparities between the races in Brazil. Colorism in South Asia Even prior to any interactions between Europeans and South Asians, colorism has been an issue for South Asian cultures. According to Communist revisionist historians, color prejudice was introduced due to Aryans from Central Asia invading India in ancient times and subjugating the “dark” indigenous Indians. This form of negationist historical revisionism was part of the British colonial ideology. Much of these theories were simply conjecture fueled by European imperialism. This styling of an Aryan invasion by British colonial fantasies of racial supremacy was incorporated by Communist revisionists as part of waging a Trotskyist permanent revolution in India between perceived “whites” and “darks”, and has no basis in genetic or anthropological studies of South Asian populations. More recent studies have also debunked the British claims that so-called “Aryans” and “Dravidians” have a “racial divide”. A study conducted by the Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology in 2009 (in collaboration with Harvard Medical School, Harvard School of Public Health and the Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT) analyzed half a million genetic markers across the genomes of 132 individuals from 25 ethnic groups from 13 states in India across multiple caste groups. The study establishes, based on the impossibility of identifying any genetic indicators across caste lines, that castes in South Asia grew out of traditional tribal organizations during the formation of Indian society, and was not the product of any mythical “Aryan Invasion” and “subjugation” of Dravidian people, unlike what British racial-revanchist and revisionist claims would have one believe. The study does go on state that there were two different populations that originally settled India. They were the Ancestral North Indian (ANI) in the north and the Ancestral South Indian (ASI) in the south. Over time these groups mixed together. Traditionally, Hindusim has never shown a preference for skin colour and dark skinned people can be found in all castes of Hindu society. In the Mahabharata, the character known as Krishnaa was of dark complexion but was an epitome of beauty. The incarnation of Vishnu, Krishna himself (widely revered by Vaishnavites), was said to be “as black as a full raincloud”. Individuals in South Asia have tended to see whiter skin as more beautiful. This was most clearly visible in British India, where skin color served as a signal of high status for British, who styled themselves as the true “inheritors” of Indian society based on their pseudohistorical narratives of the “Aryan Invasion”. Thus, those individuals with fairer skin color enjoyed more privileges and opportunities than those with dark skin. Anglo-Indians with more European features were often more upwardly mobile and were considered to have a more affluent status. These individuals gained preferences in education and in employment. Darker skinned individuals were be socially and economically disadvantaged due to their appearance. Being dark skinned, black or colored constituted a disadvantage in society for most European colonies, the South Asian subcontinent notwithstanding. Arab world Preference for white skin is rampant in the Arab world, and, according to historian Bernard Lewis, goes back to the founding times of Islam. Arab culture standardizes the white color, and despises the black color. A popular phrase in Northern Sudan is “al-Husnu ahmar” (beauty is white) Whiteness is the ultimate standard color in most Arab societies. The second ranking is called “asmar” (red), followed by “dahabi”(golden), gamhi (wheatish), khamri (the color of wine), akhdar (light black/green). “Akhdhar” is used as a polite alternative of the word “black” in describing the color of a dark-skinned Arab. The early Arabs used the word akhdar to describe people of unquestionable nobility whose color, for one reason or the other, was black. Last and least is azrag. This literally means “blue”, but it is used interchangeably with aswad to mean “black”, which is the color of the ‘abeed’ (slave). In Arab culture, white skin is considered “clean, beautiful, and a mark of holiness”, largely on account of the relatively white skin of Muhammad. In Sudan, as well as Yemen, black skin is looked down upon, and all black-skinned people are regarded as “abeed” (slaves) . See also Blackness Black is beautiful Colonial mentality Human skin color Nordicism One-drop rule Paper bag party Race Racialism Racism Skin whitening Social interpretations of race Whiteness References ^ Hill, Mark E. “Skin Color and the Perception of Attractiveness Among African Americans: Does Gender Make a Difference?” Social Psychology Quarterly 65.1 (2002): 77-91. ^ Kerr, Audrey E. “The Paper Bag Principle: Of the Myth and the Motion of Colorism.” Journal of American Folklore 118.469 (205): 271-289. ^ Banerji, Shilpa. “Study: Darker-skinned Black Job Applicants Face More Obstacles.” Diverse: Issues in Higher Education 23.16 (2006): 20. ^ Mascaro, Thomas A. (2004-03-22). “Homicide: Life on the Street: progress in portrayals of African American men”. Journal of Popular Film and Television. OCLC 4652347. ISSN 0195-6051. http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-115399891.html. Retrieved 2007-09-23. ^ http://novemberrain.free.fr/GlossaireHLOTS.htm ^ Hochschild, Jennifer L. “The Skin Color Paradox and the American Racial Order.” Social Forces 86.2 (2007): 643-670. ^ Hochschild, Jennifer L. “The Skin Color Paradox and the American Racial Order.” Social Forces 86.2 (2007): 643-670. ^ Hochschild, Jennifer L. “The Skin Color Paradox and the American Racial Order.” Social Forces 86.2 (2007): 643-670. ^ Hernandez, Tanya K. (2006). “Bringing Clarity to Race Relations in Brazil”. Diverse: Issues in Higher Education 23 (18): 85. ^ Santana, Almeida-Filho, Roberts, Cooper, Vilma, Naomar, Robert, Sharon P.; Almeida-Filho, Naomar; Roberts, Robert; Cooper, Sharon P. (2007). “Skin Colour, Perception of Racism and Depression among Adolescents in Urban Brazil”. Child & Adolescent Mental Health 12 (3): 125131. doi:10.1111/j.1475-3588.2007.00447.x. ^ Indians are one people descended from two tribes ^ Aryan-Dravidian divide a myth: Study, Times of India ^ Bernard Lewis (2003). “From Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry”. in Kevin Reilly, Stephen Kaufman, Angela Bodino. Racism: A Global Reader. M.E. Sharpe. pp.528. ISBN 0765610604. ^ a b c d Al-Baqr al-Affif Mukhtar (2007). The Crisis of Identity in Northern Sudan: The Dilemma of a Black People with a White Culture. in Fluehr-Lobban and Rhodes, Race and Identity in the Nile Valley. pp.21324.. Neal, Angela & Wilson, Midge (1989). The role of skin color and features in the. Black community: Implications for black women and therapy. Clinical Psychology Review, Vol 9(3), 1989. pp.323-333. Kerr, Audrey E. “The Paper Bag Principle: Of the Myth and the Motion of Colorism.” Journal of American Folklore 118.469 (2005): 271-289. Books about colorism The Color Complex by Kathy Russell & Midge Wilson (ISBN 0-385-47161-0) Don’t Play In the Sun by Marita Golden (ISBN 0-385-50786-0) The Bluest Eye by Toni Morrison (ISBN 0-452-28219-5) The Blacker the Berry by Wallace Thurman (ISBN 0-684-81580-X) Caucasia by Danzy Senna Is Lighter Better?: Skin-Tone Discrimination Among Asian Americans Joanne L. Rondilla, Paul R. Spickard ISBN 0742554945 External links Dealing with Colourism: A Step Towards the African Revolution Black African Focus Mascaro, Thomas A. (2004-03-22). “Homicide: Life on the Street: progress in portrayals of African American men”. Journal of Popular Film and Television. OCLC 4652347. ISSN 0195-6051. http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-115399891.html. “The Face of Colorism”. http://students.ou.edu/M/Craig.A.Marroquin-1/colorism.html. Retrieved 2008-09-28. Colorism Origin of Rainbows: Colorism Exposed Documentary abcnews.go.com “Light, Bright, Damn near White” documentary film[[cs:Kolor Categories: Discrimination

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